Believing that human urine was the source of the key ingredient, Brandt obtained several dozen buckets of urine, which he allowed to putrefy. Phosphorus was discovered in 1669 by the German alchemist Hennig Brandt, who was looking for the “philosophers’ stone,” a mythical substance capable of converting base metals to silver or gold. Consequently, its alloys expand as they cool, filling a mold completely and producing crisp, clear letters for typesetting. Bismuth is used in printing because it is one of the few substances known whose solid state is less dense than the liquid. Its name comes from the old German wismut, meaning “white metal.” Bismuth was finally isolated in the 15th century, and it was used to make movable type for printing shortly after the invention of the Gutenberg printing process in 1440. The history of bismuth (Bi), in contrast, is more difficult to follow because early alchemists often confused it with other metals, such as lead, tin, antimony, and even silver (due to its slightly pinkish-white luster). In the form of its yellow sulfide ore, orpiment (As 2S 3), arsenic (As) has been known to physicians and professional assassins since ancient Greece, although elemental arsenic was not isolated until centuries later. Small vases of ground stibnite have been found among the funeral goods buried with Egyptian pharaohs. (b) A fragment of an Egyptian painting on limestone from the 16th–13th centuries BC shows the use of ground stibnite (“kohl”) as black eye shadow. (a) Crystals of the soft black mineral stibnite (Sb 2S 3) on a white mineral matrix. \): The Ancient Egyptians Used Finely Ground Antimony Sulfide for Eye Makeup.
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